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Would you trust me?  I´m created – The use of virtual influencers in the cosmetic industry

The ongoing digitalization has not only transformed consumer behavior but also revolutionized how companies target their audiences. Particularly in the cosmetic industry, influencer marketing has become increasingly relevant. A novel development in this area is the rise of virtual influencers (VI), created using computer-generated imagery (CGI). In her master’s thesis, Julia Mergel, a student of our business psychology program, explores the effects of the visual human-likeness of VI on their perceived credibility in the cosmetic industry. The study identifies key factors for successful collaborations between companies and VI.

Research goal

The goal of this research was to understand how the visual human-likeness of VI affects their credibility ratings. The focus on credibility is especially relevant for virtual influencer, because – unlike human influencers – they are not independent entities and every post by them is usually created by a marketing team in the background. The study focuses on the cosmetic industry, where credibility plays a crucial role in consumer purchase decisions. Specifically, the research investigates whether different degrees of human-likeness in VI affect three critical factors influencing credibility: attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise. These three factors are related to each other in an interdependent relationship, collectively creating the perception of credibility of news senders (Ohanian, 1990).

Research overview

VI are CGI-created characters that actively participate in social media and are increasingly used for marketing purposes. Their application is particularly noticeable in the fashion and cosmetic industries. However, up to now the majority of studies on influencer marketing has primarily concentrated on human influencers (Why are influencers perceived as credible by social media users? – Innovation Acceptance Lab), with few focusing on virtual influencers and even fewer examining the effect of visual human-likeness on VI credibility.

The participants in the study were exposed to four different influencers: three VI with varying degrees of human-likeness and one human influencer. The study employed a within-subjects design where each participant viewed all influencers with a different post on a cosmetics product in a randomized order. The VI ranged from highly animated, cartoonish depictions to almost photorealistic, human-like virtual influencers. Participants were then asked to rate the credibility of each influencer and, in addition, to evaluate the three factors underlying credibility: attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise, which were later used as mediators in the analysis.

The study was run as an online experiment involving 119 female Instagram users, all of whom followed influencers.

Main findings

The study revealed that visual human-likeness significantly influences the perception of credibility. It was found that greater human-likeness had a positive impact on credibility ratings up to a certain point: No significant difference in perceived credibility was found between the most human-like VI and the human influencer.

The degree of human-likeness also had an effect on the underlying credibility factors:

  • Trustworthiness: A higher degree of human-likeness had a significant positive influence on trustworthiness of the VI.  
  • Attractiveness: A higher degree of human-likeness also increased the perceived attractiveness of the VI. Attractiveness plays a central role in credibility evaluations of influencers, as this trait fosters trust among consumers, making the VI appear less „uncanny“ or artificial (Choudhry et al., 2022).
  • Expertise: The perceived expertise of VI also increased with greater human-likeness. Participants perceived human-like VI as more competent compared to highly animated ones.

The parallel mediation analysis confirmed that all three factors influencing credibility—attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise—served as mediators. Overall, 72.5% of the total variance in credibility ratings was explained after including these mediators (p < .001). Trustworthiness, in particular, had the strongest effect on credibility assessments.

Scepticism toward influencer marketing

Despite the clear trends, the overall findings showed that none of the four influencers (including the human influencer!) received particularly high credibility ratings. On a seven-point scale, the highest mean score was lower than the “neutral” middle point (M = 3.71, SD = 1.32). This aligns with a survey by a digital market research institute, which found that advertising with human influencers is not necessarily perceived as more credible than traditional advertising (nextMedia. Hamburg, 2022). Thus, there may be other reasons, why influencers are so successful at the moment.

In an additional exploratory survey, reasons for and against following VI accounts were examined. Five respondents mentioned following VI out of entertainment, content interest, or curiosity. On the other hand, there were 90 negative responses. The most common reasons were that VI were seen as unrealistic, inauthentic, incapable of real experiences, and thus perceived as untrustworthy. Additionally, some found VI impersonal, and at times, even eerie or threatening. However, these descriptive results are likely influenced by the fact that VI aren’t as popular in Germany as in some American or Asian countries (Ströer Blog, 2023).

Implications

For the cosmetic industry, particularly in advertising on platforms like Instagram, companies and developers of VI should consider the following key factors to enhance the credibility of their marketing campaigns.

  1. Visual human-likeness: Companies should opt for VI with high visual human-likeness to increase credibility and avoid consumer discomfort.
  2. Factors influencing credibility: Companies should prioritize VI that are perceived as trustworthy, competent, and attractive to boost source credibility. Trustworthiness has the greatest impact on credibility, so particular attention should be paid to this factor.
  3. Product categories: Products such as nail polish or lipstick, which enhance aesthetic appeal, are better suited for VI advertising than products intended to correct human flaws.

Conclusion

While there remains scepticism surrounding VI, they are increasingly gaining importance in marketing, especially in the cosmetic industry. Our study shows that greater visual human-likeness positively influences the perception of attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise—key factors influencing credibility. Companies should leverage these insights to tailor their marketing strategies around VI and maximize the benefits of this innovative technology.

References

Choudhry, A., Han, J., Xu, X. & Huang, Y. (2022). „I Felt a Little Crazy Following a ‚Doll'“: Investigating Real Influence of Virtual Influencers on Their Followers. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 6(GROUP), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1145/3492862

NextMedia.Hamburg (Hrsg.). (2022). Authentisch, aber bitte unpolitisch? So standen die Befragten zu Influencer*innen. Verfügbar unter: https://www.nextmedia-hamburg.de/umfrage-zu-influencerinnen-lieberauthentisch-und-unpolitisch

Ohanian, R. (1990). Construction and Validation of a Scale to Measure Celebrity Endorsers‘ Perceived Expertise, Trustworthiness, and Attractiveness. Journal of Advertising, 19(3), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.1990.10673191

 

 

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Human or Machine? The influence of increasing human-likeness in AI tools on user acceptance: A comparative study in the context of Conversational Commerce

Digital sales consultation through AI-driven dialogue systems is increasingly shaping interactions between companies and customers. A central trend in this context is Conversational Commerce, where AI-based systems provide personalized product recommendations and advice in online shopping. With advancing technological development, these systems are becoming ever more human-like – from text-based chatbots to voice assistants that communicate naturally, and finally to AI avatars whose appearance and behavior are sometimes barely distinguishable from real people.
But how does this increasing human-likeness affect user perception and acceptance? This question was at the heart of the bachelor’s thesis by Lara-Maria Kraft, which examined the influence of different AI representations – chatbot, voice assistant, and AI avatar – on users’ willingness to use such systems within the framework of Conversational Commerce.

Research Objective

The aim of the study was to examine whether a higher degree of human-likeness – that is, moving from a text-based chatbot to a voice assistant and ultimately to an AI avatar – increases users’ willingness to use these systems. In addition, the study analyzed whether this relationship is mediated by perceived human-likeness (anthropomorphism) and moderated by potential discomfort as described by the Uncanny Valley effect.
The findings aim to help companies in digital commerce design AI-based tools that foster high user acceptance and thereby contribute to long-term commercial success in Conversational Commerce.

Method

The research was conducted as an experimental online study with 176 participants. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three interaction formats differing in their level of human-likeness:

  1. Chatbot – text-based interaction
  2. Voice Assistant – auditory communication
  3. AI Avatar – audiovisual representation

All groups were shown an identical video scenario simulating an AI-based product consultation in an online store. Using the example of choosing a running shoe, participants were guided through the consultation process by a virtual assistant. Afterwards, they evaluated their perception of anthropomorphism (the attribution of human qualities), their feeling of eeriness in line with the Uncanny Valley concept, and their willingness to use the presented AI system.

Key Findings

The results revealed a generally high willingness to use AI-based consultation systems in the context of Conversational Commerce – regardless of their specific form. Contrary to expectations, the degree of human-likeness had no significant impact on usage intention; no differences were found between chatbot, voice assistant, and AI avatar conditions.

Likewise, neither the mediating role of anthropomorphism nor the moderating effect of eeriness (as explained by the Uncanny Valley effect) were empirically supported. However, a clear positive relationship emerged between perceived anthropomorphism and willingness to use: the more human-like a system was perceived to be, the greater participants’ readiness to interact with it. Thus, anthropomorphism, understood as the subjective attribution of human qualities, proved to be a central factor influencing user perception and acceptance of AI tools – independent of their visual or technical design.

Practical Implications

Based on the empirical results, several practical recommendations can be derived for the design of AI-driven systems in Conversational Commerce. The findings show that users generally display a high openness to interaction with AI systems, regardless of their external form. This overall acceptance can serve as a strategic impulse for companies to systematically integrate AI-based consultation tools into digital shopping processes.

Especially in e-commerce, where personal consultation is often lacking, such systems can enhance the customer experience by supporting users throughout the information, selection, and decision-making phases. However, companies should not primarily invest in costly or hyper-realistic avatars. Instead, the focus should be on creating a natural, empathetic, and user-oriented communication style that builds trust and conveys social closeness – factors that are far more decisive for acceptance than purely visual human-likeness.

Conclusion

This study explored the influence of increasing human-likeness in AI-based systems on user acceptance within the field of Conversational Commerce. Contrary to expectations, the degree of human-likeness – whether chatbot, voice assistant, or AI avatar – did not significantly affect users’ willingness to engage. What truly matters is how human-like the system is perceived.

Perceived anthropomorphism emerged as a key factor: the more human qualities users attributed to a system, the greater their willingness to use it – independent of its actual design. However, this perception is not necessarily triggered by more human-like visual appearance alone.

Future research should therefore focus on identifying the specific factors and interaction elements that foster anthropomorphism in AI systems – and explore how these can be strategically employed to further enhance user acceptance and experience.

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Innovation in Tune: An empirical investigation of user acceptance of artificial intelligence-generated music

This study explores how anthropomorphic factors influence the acceptance of AI-generated singing. By building upon classical acceptance models like TAM and UTAUT2, we incorporate concepts such as animacy, humanlike fit, and perceived sociability. Utilizing a quantitative survey with 310 participants and analyzing the data through PLS-SEM, the study finds that animacy and humanlike fit are significant predictors of likeability, which then positively influences the intention to use AI-generated singing. Word of mouth (WoM) and curiosity also emerge as critical drivers of acceptance.

The study suggests that listeners primarily respond to the expressive qualities of AI singing (animacy and humanlike fit), while perceived sociability remains largely irrelevant. This highlights a limitation of classical acceptance models, which do not account for the anthropomorphic appeal of AI-generated creative content. Future research should address these factors, especially as AI continues to advance in creative domains.

Full citation:

Bagratuni, M., Müller, P., & Planing, P. (2025). Innovation in tune: An empirical investigation of user acceptance of artificial intelligence-generated music. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 18, Article 100660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100660

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Immersion and Technology Adoption: A Crucial Link

Our latest research on the impact of Immersion on technology acceptance is published in the renowed journal Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives and can be accessed free of charge here.

Key Findings

1. VR Dominates Immersion Quality

Among the three media conditions, VR emerged as the most immersive format. Participants using VR reported a significantly higher sense of presence and engagement compared to those exposed to videos or photos. This heightened immersion translated into richer emotional and cognitive responses, showcasing VR’s potential to create powerful, near-real experiences of using air taxis.

2. Immersion Does Not Equate to Immediate Adoption

Surprisingly, despite VR’s superior immersion quality, the study found no significant differences in participants‘ intention to use air taxis across the three media formats. While VR enhanced emotional engagement, it did not directly translate into higher immediate adoption intentions. This highlights the complexity of the decision-making process and suggests that factors beyond immersion—such as cost, safety, and accessibility—may play a more prominent role in shaping long-term acceptance.

3. Multifaceted Decision-Making in VR

VR’s impact extended beyond basic adoption intentions. Participants in the VR condition considered a broader array of factors, including reliability and social influence, when evaluating air taxis. This suggests that VR experiences prompt users to engage in more comprehensive and nuanced decision-making processes, balancing both emotional and utilitarian considerations. For instance, VR users were more likely to assess air taxis‘ reliability, reflecting their ability to visualize safety features and operational scenarios in greater detail.

Implications for Industry and Policymakers

Enhancing Engagement Through Immersion

For companies and policymakers promoting air taxis, the findings underscore the importance of immersive technologies. VR can bridge the gap between abstract concepts and tangible experiences, allowing users to virtually „test“ air taxis before they become a reality. This approach can help address common concerns, such as safety and reliability, while building emotional connections with the technology.

Strategic Media Choices

While VR offers unparalleled immersion, the study also highlights the cost-effectiveness of using less immersive media like photos or videos in certain contexts. For example, initial awareness campaigns may benefit from these formats, which are easier and cheaper to produce, while VR can be reserved for targeted initiatives aimed at deepening user engagement and addressing specific adoption barriers.

Addressing Broader Acceptance Factors

The lack of significant differences in adoption intention across media formats suggests that technological acceptance hinges on more than just immersive experiences. Policymakers and developers must address critical factors such as affordability, accessibility, and environmental impact to foster widespread adoption. Immersive technologies should complement these efforts, providing users with a holistic understanding of air taxis’ benefits and addressing potential concerns.

The Power of VR in Shaping Perceptions

One of VR’s unique strengths lies in its ability to evoke emotional responses. By simulating realistic scenarios, VR can make futuristic technologies feel tangible and relatable. For air taxis, this means giving users a sense of what it’s like to soar above cityscapes, experience smooth takeoffs and landings, and visualize safety protocols in action. These experiences not only build excitement but also help demystify the technology, reducing apprehension and fostering trust.

Limitations and Future Directions

While the study provides valuable insights, it also acknowledges certain limitations. The sample consisted primarily of university students, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Future research should involve more diverse demographics to capture a broader range of perspectives. Additionally, the study focused on three specific media formats; exploring other immersive technologies, such as augmented reality or interactive demonstrations, could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how media influences technology acceptance.

Conclusion

The adoption of innovative technologies like air taxis depends on a delicate balance of emotional and rational factors. While immersive media formats like VR hold immense potential to enhance engagement and address user concerns, they are not a standalone solution. Industry stakeholders must take a multifaceted approach, combining immersive experiences with practical considerations like cost and accessibility. By leveraging the unique strengths of VR and addressing broader acceptance factors, we can pave the way for a future where air taxis become a seamless part of urban mobility.

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Can you imagine what it could be like? Using Virtual and Augmented Reality to increase the acceptance of sustainable mobility in cities

Our cities face significant challenges, particularly regarding mobility and quality of life. Increasing traffic and the associated environmental impacts are progressively affecting urban life. The need to make mobility more sustainable is now ever-present, which goes along with an acceptance of the suggested changes. „Every change means that a person has to leave his known and habitual actions, his environment, his habits, his role, in short his status quo“(Frey et al., 2008, p. 281). A key question, therefore, is: How can the acceptance of sustainable mobility be increased among citizens? This is precisely where Joshua Klein’s bachelor thesis comes in, conducted as part of the research project „Streetmoves4iCity“ (read more here about this project). The thesis explores how immersive technologies like Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) can help to increase citizens’ acceptance of traffic-reducing measures by making the positive effects of the change visible.

Virtual Reality (VR): Creates a fully digital environment in which the user immerses themselves. Using headsets, the real world is completely blocked out, and the user is placed in a computer-generated world that is interactive and immersive.

Augmented Reality (AR): Overlays digital information onto the real world. Using smartphones or glasses, users see the real environment, enhanced with digital elements.

Research goal: The aim of the study was to determine whether and to what extent immersive technologies can promote the acceptance of measures aimed at reducing urban road traffic by visualizing the positive effects of these measures. Specifically, it examined whether VR and AR are perceived differently and how immersion—the feeling of being absorbed in a virtual environment—impacts acceptance. These questions are crucial, as the successful implementation of sustainable mobility concepts often depends on the public’s willingness to accept change.

Research overview: The empirical study was conducted in the Leonhardsvorstadt district of Stuttgart and aimed to simulate the experience of traffic-reducing measures through VR and AR. The investigation involved two independent groups: one group experienced the planned measures through a VR simulation, while the other group used AR. The VR group was shown a 360-degree video of a previously implemented traffic trial in Mannheim (see here for another study using this methodology), while the AR group experienced a live augmented reality simulation using a Microsoft HoloLens2 mixed-reality head-mounted display. In both cases, participants’ acceptance of the measures was assessed both before and after the experience, along with their perceived immersion. A total of 44 people took part in the study.

The central hypothesis was that the experience of the positive effects of traffic-reducing measures through VR and AR would lead to a significant increase in acceptance of these measures. Additionally, the study examined whether there were differences in perceived immersion between the two technologies and whether this mediated the effect on acceptance. Another research goal was to explore whether familiarity with the respective technology influenced immersion.

The study was supplemented by qualitative interviews to identify what is currently lacking in public spaces in the Leonhardsvorstadt, how car parking spaces can be used more efficiently, and what suggestions participants had for improving public spaces by reducing traffic flow.

Main results

Increased acceptance: First, it was confirmed that both VR and AR can contribute to increasing the acceptance of measures aimed at reducing urban road traffic. This is an important finding, as it shows that immersive technologies can be valuable tools for citizen participation and urban planning.

VR and AR are equally convincing: Interestingly, there were no significant differences between the two technologies in terms of their effect on acceptance. Both VR and AR were equally convincing to participants. This suggests that both technologies are equally suitable for involving citizens early in planning processes and demonstrating the benefits of traffic measures.

Level of immersion has no effect: Surprisingly, the perceived immersion played a smaller role than expected. The results suggest that it is less about the depth of the immersive experience and more about making changes tangible and understandable. Even a high level of immersion does not necessarily lead to a change in opinion, as the impact depends more on the conveyed facts.

No mediation by familiarity with technology: Another question was whether familiarity with the respective technology could influence the perceived immersion. However, this assumption was not confirmed. Participants’ familiarity with VR or AR had no significant effect on their immersion experience. Therefore, even people with little experience with these technologies could benefit from their use.

Desire for parks, leisure facilities, and cleanliness: The qualitative responses emphasized an improvement in quality of life. Park-like structures were often desired, followed by an expansion of sustainable infrastructure, gastronomy, cultural offerings, and improved cleanliness in the district.

Conclusion

In summary, Joshua Klein’s thesis demonstrates that both virtual and augmented reality are effective tools for promoting the acceptance of measures aimed at reducing urban road traffic. The immersive experience of such measures through technologies like VR and AR gives citizens the opportunity to realistically perceive planned changes and better understand their benefits. A key advantage of the technology is that it not only stimulates citizens‘ imagination but also helps reduce uncertainties and build trust in the feasibility of such measures. These findings offer valuable insights for urban planning and citizen participation, particularly concerning the planning of sustainable mobility concepts. With VR and AR, cities like Stuttgart have an effective means of involving citizens early in planning processes and illustrating the positive impact of such projects on quality of life.

Further interesting contributions on this topic can be foundhere: Virtual Reality (VR) in urban planning – a helpful use of technology to increase the acceptance of a reduction in car traffic – Innovation Acceptance Lab

References

Frey, D., Gerkhardt, M. & Fischer, P. (2008). Erfolgsfaktoren und Stolpersteine bei Veränderungen. In D. Beck, R. Fisch, A. Müller & D. Beck (Hrsg.), Veränderungen in Organisationen: Stand und Perspektiven (S. 281- 299). VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3-531-91166-3

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Heart vs. Brain: The influence of emotional and informative advertising

In an era in which advertising spending has risen excessively despite the flood of information, only about 5% of messages struggle to get the attention of potential consumers (Kroeber-Riel, 2015). Especially in saturated markets, such as the Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) sector, advertisers are subjected to a high level of competitive pressure (Naderer et al., 2011). Today’s demand for advertising spots is clear: they need to stand out and catch attention in order to be effective at all (Levenson, 2011).

In this challenging environment, emotional marketing relies on the influence of the decision-making process without presenting offering rational arguments. Our latest study aimed at highlighting the effectiveness of more emotional compared to informative advertising. The central question was to find most effective advertising strategies to have a sustainable impact on respective target groups.

Research objective:

The study was conducted by Svenja Greitmann and takes a look at the world of advertising in the midst of a real abundance of information. The aim was to assess the effectiveness of emotional compared to informative advertising in the field of Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG). It further investigated differences with regard to gender and product categories. The outcome may be helpful for companies looking for the most effective advertising strategies.

Method:

Based on a preliminary study, two product categories were selected, one that was utilitarian (glass cleaner) and one that was hedonic (soft drink).

For each category a product from a fictitious brand was created. And for each product, two social media spots were made that either were emotional (e.g., by showing positive pictures like smiling people using the product) or information (e.g., by giving positive information about product ingredients). The emotional spot was expected to be especially effective with the hedonic product, whereas the informational spot should be more effective with the utilitarian product.

The main study had an experimental 2x2x2 factor-between-subject design to examine cause-effect relationships. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four advertising spots to systematically measure the impact of advertising appeals and product categories. In addition, gender of participants was assessed.

Sample:

The sample consisted of 185 adults.

Key Findings:

Contrary to our expectations, the study showed overall an advantage of the informational over the emotional spots. However, there was also a three-way interaction found. For men, the expected interaction pattern showed, i.e. emotional spot was more effective with the hedonic product, whereas the informational spot was more effective with the utilitarian product.

This effect was not found for women, which may be due to a different relevance of nutrition and health information when buying a soft drink. This may explain, why informational advertising was more effective with soft drinks for female participants.

Thus, informational advertising seems to be relevant if the product category shows a higher level of involvement (e.g., due to health issues)

Conclusion:

This study investigated the effectiveness of emotional and informative advertising on two different Fast Moving Consumer Goods. The results showed that informative advertising is superior, contrary to the assumption that emotional stimuli should be more effective with low-involvement products. There is a need to clearly understand the relevance of a product for a selected target group in order to find the best advertising strategy. Overall, advertising research remains relevant in the face of changing consumer needs, but requires continuous adaptation and refinement of advertising strategies.

References

 

Kroeber-Riel, W. (2015). Strategie und Technik der Werbung: Verhaltenswissenschaftliche und neurowissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743

Naderer, G., Balzer, E. & Batinic, B. (Hrsg.). (2011). Qualitative Marktforschung in Theorie und Praxis: Grundlagen, Methoden und Anwendungen. Wiesbaden: Gabler.

 

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Nutri-Score – Do consumers understand what it means?

The prevalence of adult obesity has more than doubled worldwide since 1990 (World Health Organization [WHO] 2024). Obesity-related diseases caused about 11% of deaths in 2019 (WIOD, 2022). A healthy diet is recommended to prevent obesity; however, only few consumers are interested in learning about this topic (IfD Allensbach, 2023, as cited in Statista, 2023).

Front-of-pack (FOP) labels, particularly the Nutri-Score, can be used to address this problem. Nutritional values, which are otherwise only shown in a nutritional value table, usually on the back of a package, are summarized using the Nutri-Score. This allows consumers to quickly judge how nutritious selected products are in comparison.

The EU plans to introduce a binding FOP label (European Parliament, 2022, 2023). Studies have shown that the conceptual understanding of the Nutri-Score must be improved to ensure its’ effective use (Liu et al., 2014). However, it remains unclear whether consumers know how to use the Nutri-Score accurately. This post summarizes research examining consumers’ conceptual understanding of the Nutri-Score.

Research aim:

In the present study conducted by Nicole Del, the conceptual understanding of the Nutri-Score was examined and compared with other forms of understanding, namely subjective and objective understanding. It was further investigated whether gender and the involvement in healthy nutrition have an influence on conceptual understanding.

Method:

This study examined the extent to which consumers correctly understand the Nutri-Score. In the survey, different aspects of understanding were assessed using a sample of 170 consumers (aged 18-78 years).

  • Objective understanding was assessed by letting participants choose the healthiest and unhealthiest options from three products within a product category. Each product had a different Nutri-Score. They had to make a choice for five different product categories. The number of correct choices was translated into an objective score.
  • Subjective understanding was measured through self-assessment using a rating scale from 1 (I do not understand at all) to 10 (I understand very well).
  • Conceptual understanding was measured using ten true-false statements. The score was based on correctly categorizing the statements as true or false.

Key results:

  • Consumers’ conceptual understanding of the Nutri-Score was lower than that of the other forms (conceptual 63%, objective 85%, subjective 70%).
  • Thus, consumers do not have a sufficient conceptual understanding of the Nutri-Score for the correct application. Over half of the participants mistakenly thought that foods with a Nutri-Score of D or E should not be consumed, and over 40% believed that a Nutri-Score of A or B indicates that the food is healthy (both are not correct).
  • Interestingly, subjective, objective, and conceptual understanding did not correlate, implying that they constitute different dimensions of understanding.
  • Neither gender nor involvement in healthy eating had a significant influence on conceptual understanding.

Summary:

The EU’s Farm-to-Fork Strategy plans to introduce a binding FOP label. Currently, the Nutri-Score is one of the most widely used FOP labels in the EU. If properly applied, the label can reduce the number of consumers with diet-related diseases by guiding healthy food choices (Egnell et al., 2019). However, our study shows that many consumers do not understand the label sufficiently. They have knowledge gaps in their conceptual understanding of the label, implying that they may not always correctly apply the Nutri-Score. Thus, there is a need for informational campaigns to explain the meaning of the Nutri-Score.

References

Egnell, M., Crosetto, P., d’Almeida, T., Kesse-Guyot, E., Touvier, M., Ruffieux B et al. (2019). Modelling the impact of different front-of-package nutrition labels on mortality from non-communicable chronic disease. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 16(1), 56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0817-2

European Parliament (2022) Taking the EU’s ‘farm to fork’ strategy forward. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2021/690622/EPRS_ATA(2021)690622_EN.pdf

European Parliament (2023) Proposal for a harmonised mandatory front-of-pack nutrition labelling. In “A European Green Deal”.
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-a-european-green-deal/file-mandatory-front-of-pack-nutrition-labelling

Liu, P.J., Wisdom, J., Roberto, C.A., Liu, L.J. & Ubel, P.A. (2014). Using Behavioral Economics to Design More Effective Food Policies to Address Obesity. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 36(1), 6–24. https://doi.org/10.1093/aepp/ppt027

Statista (2023) Interesse der Bevölkerung in Deutschland an gesunder Ernährung und gesunder Lebensweise von 2019 bis 2023.
https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/170913/umfrage/interesse-an-gesunder-ernaehrung-und-lebensweise/

Statistisches Bundesamt (2023) Mehr als die Hälfte der Erwachsenen hat Übergewicht.
https://www.destatis.de/Europa/DE/Thema/Bevoelkerung-Arbeit-Soziales/Gesundheit/Uebergewicht.html

WIOD (2022) Anteil von Todesfällen aufgrund von Fettleibigkeit in ausgewählten Ländern weltweit im Jahr 2019 [Graph]. https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/1246951/umfrage/todesfaelle-aufgrund-von-fettleibigkeit-in-ausgewaehlten-laendern/

World Health Organization (2023) Obesity.
https://www.who.int/health-topics/obesity/#tab=tab_3

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Artificial intelligence in a leadership context – acceptance of the use of robots in leadership positions

The development of artificial intelligence (AI) is changing the working environment. For example, artificial intelligence systems are increasingly applied in the field of employee leadership. Hereby AI can take over routine tasks or provide data-based decision support in employee-related processes. Advancements in robotics, coupled with AI technologies, also enable the construction of social robots. These kinds of robots can interact with their environment and thus theoretically offer the possibility of taking over leadership tasks completely. The successful use of social robots depends on employees’ acceptance of robot supervisors. Therefore, Lilly Mühlbauer, a student of our business psychology program, has conducted a quantitative online survey to gain insights into the acceptance of robots in leadership positions, as part of her bachelors’ thesis. In this context, the influence of the leadership entity (human vs. robot) as well as the impact of the leadership style (transactional vs. transformational) was examined.

Research Overview

The data collection was conducted in November 2023 through a quantitative online experiment using the platform Unipark. Participants were asked to imagine applying for a new job. Therefore, only individuals for whom this scenario realistically reflected their life stage were included. Accordingly, students and retirees were excluded by a filter question at the beginning of the survey.
Participants were initially assigned to the following four groups: G1 (human x transactional leadership style), G2 (human x transformational leadership style), G3 (robot x transactional leadership style), G4 (robot x transformational leadership style).
The central element of the questionnaire was a fictional scenario. For this purpose, images depicting the manager in conversation with an employee were generated in Midjourney. Except for the manager, the pictures were created identically, with no variations in body posture for the different leadership styles. To operationalize the two leadership styles, an excerpt of the conversation between the manager and the employee was presented, consisting of a short monologue by the manager.
The analysis included a total number of 162 participants, with an average age of 23 years.

Main findings of the survey

    • Results indicated a significant difference in the acceptance between the two leadership entities (human vs. robot). The human manager received significantly higher acceptance ratings compared to the robot manager.
    • Results indicated a significant difference in the acceptance between the two leadership styles (transactional vs. transformational). The transformational leadership style led to a greater acceptance of managers.
    • The acceptance of the human manager and the robot manager is not dependent on the presented leadership style.
    • No significant correlation was found between prior knowledge about AI programs or AI-assisted robots and the acceptance of a robot manager. It should be noted that this analysis was based solely on the participants’ self-assessment of their own knowledge.
    • A positive correlation between the experience with AI programs or AI-assisted robots and the acceptance of a robot manager was found. It’s important to consider this result with the caveat that the responses are based on consciously perceived experiences of the participants, and individuals may encounter AI programs in their daily lives more frequently than they are actually aware of.
    • Additionally, results indicated that leadership entity and leadership style not only influence acceptance but also impact the organizational attractiveness of a company.

Conclusion

Overall, the data suggest that a human manager is significantly more accepted compared to a robot manager. Therefore, it can be stated, that employees currently demonstrate no clear willingness to work under the leadership of a robot. In addition, the expected difference in the acceptance rating in relation to the leadership style presented could be measured. Thus, the transformational leadership style scored higher than the transactional leadership style, consequently leading to greater acceptance of the manager. No interaction between the two factors, leadership entity and leadership style, could be observed. This implies that they independently influence the acceptance evaluation. As a result of high practical relevance, it can be stated that the robot manager achieved significantly lower values regarding organizational attractiveness compared to the human manager.
Accordingly, the deployment of a robot leader appears to have a negative impact on the organizational attractiveness of a company. This study contributes to the research field of human-robot interaction and provides statistically significant findings on the acceptance of robots in management positions.

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Why Emotions matter in Technology Acceptance: Insights from Extended Reality

When reviewing previous studies of technology acceptance, it becomes apparent that one crucial aspect has often been overlooked, namely the role of emotions (Kulviwat, Bruner II, Kumar, Nasco & Clark, 2007; Valor, Antonetti & Crisafulli, 2022). Most models used in acceptance research primarily emphasize rational or cognitive factors. But humans don’t make decisions purely based on rational considerations (Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Damasio, 1994). Therefore, when discussing technology acceptance, shouldn’t emotional factors, such as the joy of using a technology or the fear associated with it, be considered as well? Cognitive models alone do not represent the entirety of the components that have an influence on acceptance (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010). Recognizing the role of emotions is vital, especially in times of digital transformation, which entails numerous changes (Kuckelkorn, 2019).

This is especially true for immersive technologies like Extended Reality (XR), as they have a particularly high potential for emotional impact. Through visual, acoustic and haptic stimuli and, especially, real-time feedback to user actions, XR creates a sense of presence in a virtual world (Riva et al., 2007). By increasingly merging virtuality and reality, the way we live, work and interact has changed fundamentally (Singh, Singh, Verma & Prabha, 2023). Understanding the emotional dynamics in the acceptance process offers the opportunity to increase the acceptance of XR by addressing emotions appropriately through marketing and the development of XR technologies.

Research goal

The objective of the study, conducted by Jana Baudler, was to determine the influence of emotions on the acceptance of new technologies. As previous acceptance research lacks consideration of emotional factors the study was carried out to address this crucial gap. As the basis for the study, the frequently replicated UTAUT2 model was used. The research question raised was whether the addition of emotional factors into the UTAUT2 model improves the prediction of the behavioral intention to use the technology. The study was applied to the new technology XR. By focusing on XR, this study aims to provide insights into how emotional factors influence user acceptance of new technologies.

Research overview

A quantitative online study was conducted to investigate the research question. The final sample consisted of 118 participants, ranging in age from 15 to 61 years (mean = 23.63 years). In the online survey, participants were presented with a scenario they had to envision. The scenario involved taking a city trip that included the use of various XR technologies (including Augmented, Mixed, and Virtual Reality). The participants then had to rate the rational factors (effort expectancy, performance expectancy, social influence and price value) as well as emotional factors (hedonic motivation, affection and anxiety).

The participants‘ experience with XR was as follows:

  • Only 19% of the participants had tried XR before.
  • Those who reported having experience with XR had either used the technology once or twice, or in a few cases, occasionally.
  • Experiences were primarily in the education and gaming & entertainment sectors.

Main findings

  • Incorporating emotional factors in addition to the rational factors of the UTAUT2 model significantly improves its predictive power and variance explanation.
  • Among the emotional factors evaluated, only affection emerges as significant. Hedonic motivation and anxiety did not show a significant impact in this study. Unlike previous studies (e.g., Rauschnabel, Rossmann & tom Dieck, 2017; Chuah, 2018) where hedonic motivation consistently showed significance, this study found it to be insignificant when combined with the other two emotional factors.
  • The comparison with the model consisting only of inexperienced participants shows that there are hardly any differences when emotional factors are included. It can be assumed that this is a stable model in terms of this aspect.

As the study shows, the addition of emotional factors leads to a significant improvement of the model as well as to a greater variance explanation of the behavioral intention to use the technology. The results of the study argue for an extension of the UTAUT2 model. Neglecting emotional aspects ignores an important part. 

Conclusion

The study emphasizes the crucial role of emotions in technology acceptance, demonstrating that the acceptance of technologies is not only influenced by rational factors but also significantly by emotional factors. It stresses the substantial impact of emotions on behavioral intention. By focusing on the emotional aspect, the study provides an initial overview of XR acceptance. Given the rapid advances in realizing the human dream of escaping into artificial worlds, further research is essential to address various aspects of the often-overlooked role of emotions in technology acceptance.

References

Beaudry & Pinsonneault. (2010). The Other Side of Acceptance: Studying the Direct and Indirect Effects of Emotions on Information Technology Use. MIS Quarterly, 34(4), 689–710. https://doi.org/10.2307/25750701

Bechara, A. & Damasio, A. R. (2005). The somatic marker hypothesis: A neu ral theory of economic decision. Games and Economic Behavior, 52(2), 336–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2004.06.010

Chuah, S. H.‑W. (2018). Why and Who Will Adopt Extended Reality Technol ogy? Literature Review, Synthesis, and Future Research Agenda. SSRN Electronic Journal, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3300469

Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes‘ Error. Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. East Rutherford: Penguin Publishing Group. Verfügbar unter: https://ahandfulofleaves.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/descartes-error_antonio-damasio.pdf

Kuckelkorn, T. (2019, 29. November). Digitale Transformation. Der Mensch zwischen Technologie und Emotion. connect professional. Verfügbar unter: https://www.connect-professional.de/markt/der-mensch-zwischen-techno logie-und-emotion.171683.html

Kulviwat, S., Bruner II, G. C., Kumar, A., Nasco, S. A. & Clark, T. (2007). To ward a unified theory of consumer acceptance technology. Psychology & Marketing, 24(12), 1059–1084. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20196

Rauschnabel, P. A., Rossmann, A. & tom Dieck, M. C. (2017). An adoption framework for mobile augmented reality games: The case of Pokémon Go. Computers in Human Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.030

Riva, G., Mantovani, F., Capideville, C. S., Preziosa, A., Morganti, F., Vil lani, D. et al. (2007). Affective interactions using virtual reality: the link be tween presence and emotions. Cyberpsychology & Behavior : the Impact of the Internet, Multimedia and Virtual Reality on Behavior and Society, 10(1), 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9993

Singh, J., Singh, G., Verma, R. & Prabha, C. (2023). Exploring the Evolving Landscape of Extended Reality (XR) Technology. In 2023 3rd International Conference on Smart Generation Computing, Communication and Net working (SMART GENCON) (S. 1–6). IEEE.

Valor, C., Antonetti, P. & Crisafulli, B. (2022). Emotions and consumers’ adop tion of innovations: An integrative review and research agenda. Technolog ical Forecasting and Social Change, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121609

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Sustainable seals of approval: don’t trust every seal on your chocolate!

Sustainable seals of approval: don’t trust every seal on your chocolate!

In a world where sustainability and environmental awareness are becoming increasingly important, quality seals play a crucial role. But not every seal delivers what it promises. A recent study sheds light on precisely this question and provides surprising insights into the world of certifications.

A jungle of seals

Quality seals are ubiquitous, especially in the food sector, such as chocolate. These small symbols are intended to reassure consumers that the product meets certain standards – be it environmental, health or social aspects. But the reality is much more complex. Some of these seals are untested. This means that they are not certified by independent bodies.

What does this mean for the consumer?
Can these seals be trusted at all under these circumstances?

The study: An experiment with chocolate

Pia Futterer, a student of our bachelor’s program tried to answer these questions in her Bachelor thesis. In a quantitative online survey with 101 participants who regularly consume chocolate she took a closer look at precisely this problem. The participants evaluated four chocolate bars, each bearing a different seal: a known certified one (German organic seal), an unknown certified one (Biokreis seal), an invented, untested one (see picture) and a bar with no seal at all. The results are astounding.

Main results: Trust in unverified seals

 The study shows that even unverified seals of approval increase consumers‘ willingness to buy. What is even more surprising is that these unverified seals were rated as more credible than unknown verified seals. This underlines the fact that many consumers have difficulty distinguishing between reliable and questionable seals. This blind trust in unverified labels is alarming and shows how urgently regulatory measures are needed.

The role of availability heuristics

 Why do consumers trust unverified seals? One answer lies in the so-called availability heuristic. This mental shortcut leads us to perceive easily accessible or frequently seen information as particularly credible. So, if an unverified seal often appears on products, we tend to trust it – regardless of whether it is actually verified or not.

Discussion: A complex purchase decision

 The results of the study suggest that consumers often do not have the motivation or ability to critically scrutinize the credibility of quality seals.

Especially when it comes to stressful grocery shopping, we often rely on simple decision-making rules. This is exacerbated by the abundance of products and information in the supermarket, which further increases the confusion.

Recommendations: Time to act

 In view of these findings, it is important that we as a society take action:

  1. Stricter legal regulations: The planned EU directive against greenwashing must be implemented as soon as possible to ensure that only certified seals may be used. This directive would help to prevent misleading environmental claims and ensure that only verified seals appear on products.
  2. Conscious consumption: Consumers should actively inform themselves about the meaning and origin of quality labels. Knowledge is power, especially when it comes to sustainable consumption. Better consumer education about the various labels could help to avoid misjudgments.
  3. Transparency on the part of companies: Companies should disclose which criteria their seals of approval fulfill and how these are checked in order to strengthen consumer trust. A clear and transparent process for awarding seals of approval could help to win back consumer trust.

Conclusion: More than just a seal

 This study opens our eyes to the fact that not every seal of approval delivers what it promises at first glance. While we want to be environmentally conscious, we also need to be more critical and not blindly trust every label. The results underline the urgency of better regulation and education so that we can make more informed and sustainable purchasing decisions in the future.

The next chocolate bar you buy could tell more than just a story about taste – it could also be a story about trust and deception. Don’t trust every seal on your chocolate!

References

 

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