Category: Blog

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Artificial intelligence in a leadership context – acceptance of the use of robots in leadership positions

The development of artificial intelligence (AI) is changing the working environment. For example, artificial intelligence systems are increasingly applied in the field of employee leadership. Hereby AI can take over routine tasks or provide data-based decision support in employee-related processes. Advancements in robotics, coupled with AI technologies, also enable the construction of social robots. These kinds of robots can interact with their environment and thus theoretically offer the possibility of taking over leadership tasks completely. The successful use of social robots depends on employees’ acceptance of robot supervisors. Therefore, Lilly Mühlbauer, a student of our business psychology program, has conducted a quantitative online survey to gain insights into the acceptance of robots in leadership positions, as part of her bachelors’ thesis. In this context, the influence of the leadership entity (human vs. robot) as well as the impact of the leadership style (transactional vs. transformational) was examined.

Research Overview

The data collection was conducted in November 2023 through a quantitative online experiment using the platform Unipark. Participants were asked to imagine applying for a new job. Therefore, only individuals for whom this scenario realistically reflected their life stage were included. Accordingly, students and retirees were excluded by a filter question at the beginning of the survey.
Participants were initially assigned to the following four groups: G1 (human x transactional leadership style), G2 (human x transformational leadership style), G3 (robot x transactional leadership style), G4 (robot x transformational leadership style).
The central element of the questionnaire was a fictional scenario. For this purpose, images depicting the manager in conversation with an employee were generated in Midjourney. Except for the manager, the pictures were created identically, with no variations in body posture for the different leadership styles. To operationalize the two leadership styles, an excerpt of the conversation between the manager and the employee was presented, consisting of a short monologue by the manager.
The analysis included a total number of 162 participants, with an average age of 23 years.

Main findings of the survey

    • Results indicated a significant difference in the acceptance between the two leadership entities (human vs. robot). The human manager received significantly higher acceptance ratings compared to the robot manager.
    • Results indicated a significant difference in the acceptance between the two leadership styles (transactional vs. transformational). The transformational leadership style led to a greater acceptance of managers.
    • The acceptance of the human manager and the robot manager is not dependent on the presented leadership style.
    • No significant correlation was found between prior knowledge about AI programs or AI-assisted robots and the acceptance of a robot manager. It should be noted that this analysis was based solely on the participants’ self-assessment of their own knowledge.
    • A positive correlation between the experience with AI programs or AI-assisted robots and the acceptance of a robot manager was found. It’s important to consider this result with the caveat that the responses are based on consciously perceived experiences of the participants, and individuals may encounter AI programs in their daily lives more frequently than they are actually aware of.
    • Additionally, results indicated that leadership entity and leadership style not only influence acceptance but also impact the organizational attractiveness of a company.

Conclusion

Overall, the data suggest that a human manager is significantly more accepted compared to a robot manager. Therefore, it can be stated, that employees currently demonstrate no clear willingness to work under the leadership of a robot. In addition, the expected difference in the acceptance rating in relation to the leadership style presented could be measured. Thus, the transformational leadership style scored higher than the transactional leadership style, consequently leading to greater acceptance of the manager. No interaction between the two factors, leadership entity and leadership style, could be observed. This implies that they independently influence the acceptance evaluation. As a result of high practical relevance, it can be stated that the robot manager achieved significantly lower values regarding organizational attractiveness compared to the human manager.
Accordingly, the deployment of a robot leader appears to have a negative impact on the organizational attractiveness of a company. This study contributes to the research field of human-robot interaction and provides statistically significant findings on the acceptance of robots in management positions.

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Why Emotions matter in Technology Acceptance: Insights from Extended Reality

When reviewing previous studies of technology acceptance, it becomes apparent that one crucial aspect has often been overlooked, namely the role of emotions (Kulviwat, Bruner II, Kumar, Nasco & Clark, 2007; Valor, Antonetti & Crisafulli, 2022). Most models used in acceptance research primarily emphasize rational or cognitive factors. But humans don’t make decisions purely based on rational considerations (Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Damasio, 1994). Therefore, when discussing technology acceptance, shouldn’t emotional factors, such as the joy of using a technology or the fear associated with it, be considered as well? Cognitive models alone do not represent the entirety of the components that have an influence on acceptance (Beaudry & Pinsonneault, 2010). Recognizing the role of emotions is vital, especially in times of digital transformation, which entails numerous changes (Kuckelkorn, 2019).

This is especially true for immersive technologies like Extended Reality (XR), as they have a particularly high potential for emotional impact. Through visual, acoustic and haptic stimuli and, especially, real-time feedback to user actions, XR creates a sense of presence in a virtual world (Riva et al., 2007). By increasingly merging virtuality and reality, the way we live, work and interact has changed fundamentally (Singh, Singh, Verma & Prabha, 2023). Understanding the emotional dynamics in the acceptance process offers the opportunity to increase the acceptance of XR by addressing emotions appropriately through marketing and the development of XR technologies.

Research goal

The objective of the study, conducted by Jana Baudler, was to determine the influence of emotions on the acceptance of new technologies. As previous acceptance research lacks consideration of emotional factors the study was carried out to address this crucial gap. As the basis for the study, the frequently replicated UTAUT2 model was used. The research question raised was whether the addition of emotional factors into the UTAUT2 model improves the prediction of the behavioral intention to use the technology. The study was applied to the new technology XR. By focusing on XR, this study aims to provide insights into how emotional factors influence user acceptance of new technologies.

Research overview

A quantitative online study was conducted to investigate the research question. The final sample consisted of 118 participants, ranging in age from 15 to 61 years (mean = 23.63 years). In the online survey, participants were presented with a scenario they had to envision. The scenario involved taking a city trip that included the use of various XR technologies (including Augmented, Mixed, and Virtual Reality). The participants then had to rate the rational factors (effort expectancy, performance expectancy, social influence and price value) as well as emotional factors (hedonic motivation, affection and anxiety).

The participants’ experience with XR was as follows:

  • Only 19% of the participants had tried XR before.
  • Those who reported having experience with XR had either used the technology once or twice, or in a few cases, occasionally.
  • Experiences were primarily in the education and gaming & entertainment sectors.

Main findings

  • Incorporating emotional factors in addition to the rational factors of the UTAUT2 model significantly improves its predictive power and variance explanation.
  • Among the emotional factors evaluated, only affection emerges as significant. Hedonic motivation and anxiety did not show a significant impact in this study. Unlike previous studies (e.g., Rauschnabel, Rossmann & tom Dieck, 2017; Chuah, 2018) where hedonic motivation consistently showed significance, this study found it to be insignificant when combined with the other two emotional factors.
  • The comparison with the model consisting only of inexperienced participants shows that there are hardly any differences when emotional factors are included. It can be assumed that this is a stable model in terms of this aspect.

As the study shows, the addition of emotional factors leads to a significant improvement of the model as well as to a greater variance explanation of the behavioral intention to use the technology. The results of the study argue for an extension of the UTAUT2 model. Neglecting emotional aspects ignores an important part. 

Conclusion

The study emphasizes the crucial role of emotions in technology acceptance, demonstrating that the acceptance of technologies is not only influenced by rational factors but also significantly by emotional factors. It stresses the substantial impact of emotions on behavioral intention. By focusing on the emotional aspect, the study provides an initial overview of XR acceptance. Given the rapid advances in realizing the human dream of escaping into artificial worlds, further research is essential to address various aspects of the often-overlooked role of emotions in technology acceptance.

References

Beaudry & Pinsonneault. (2010). The Other Side of Acceptance: Studying the Direct and Indirect Effects of Emotions on Information Technology Use. MIS Quarterly, 34(4), 689–710. https://doi.org/10.2307/25750701

Bechara, A. & Damasio, A. R. (2005). The somatic marker hypothesis: A neu ral theory of economic decision. Games and Economic Behavior, 52(2), 336–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2004.06.010

Chuah, S. H.‑W. (2018). Why and Who Will Adopt Extended Reality Technol ogy? Literature Review, Synthesis, and Future Research Agenda. SSRN Electronic Journal, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3300469

Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes’ Error. Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. East Rutherford: Penguin Publishing Group. Verfügbar unter: https://ahandfulofleaves.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/descartes-error_antonio-damasio.pdf

Kuckelkorn, T. (2019, 29. November). Digitale Transformation. Der Mensch zwischen Technologie und Emotion. connect professional. Verfügbar unter: https://www.connect-professional.de/markt/der-mensch-zwischen-techno logie-und-emotion.171683.html

Kulviwat, S., Bruner II, G. C., Kumar, A., Nasco, S. A. & Clark, T. (2007). To ward a unified theory of consumer acceptance technology. Psychology & Marketing, 24(12), 1059–1084. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20196

Rauschnabel, P. A., Rossmann, A. & tom Dieck, M. C. (2017). An adoption framework for mobile augmented reality games: The case of Pokémon Go. Computers in Human Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.030

Riva, G., Mantovani, F., Capideville, C. S., Preziosa, A., Morganti, F., Vil lani, D. et al. (2007). Affective interactions using virtual reality: the link be tween presence and emotions. Cyberpsychology & Behavior : the Impact of the Internet, Multimedia and Virtual Reality on Behavior and Society, 10(1), 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9993

Singh, J., Singh, G., Verma, R. & Prabha, C. (2023). Exploring the Evolving Landscape of Extended Reality (XR) Technology. In 2023 3rd International Conference on Smart Generation Computing, Communication and Net working (SMART GENCON) (S. 1–6). IEEE.

Valor, C., Antonetti, P. & Crisafulli, B. (2022). Emotions and consumers’ adop tion of innovations: An integrative review and research agenda. Technolog ical Forecasting and Social Change, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121609

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Sustainable seals of approval: don’t trust every seal on your chocolate!

Sustainable seals of approval: don’t trust every seal on your chocolate!

In a world where sustainability and environmental awareness are becoming increasingly important, quality seals play a crucial role. But not every seal delivers what it promises. A recent study sheds light on precisely this question and provides surprising insights into the world of certifications.

A jungle of seals

Quality seals are ubiquitous, especially in the food sector, such as chocolate. These small symbols are intended to reassure consumers that the product meets certain standards – be it environmental, health or social aspects. But the reality is much more complex. Some of these seals are untested. This means that they are not certified by independent bodies.

What does this mean for the consumer?
Can these seals be trusted at all under these circumstances?

The study: An experiment with chocolate

Pia Futterer, a student of our bachelor’s program tried to answer these questions in her Bachelor thesis. In a quantitative online survey with 101 participants who regularly consume chocolate she took a closer look at precisely this problem. The participants evaluated four chocolate bars, each bearing a different seal: a known certified one (German organic seal), an unknown certified one (Biokreis seal), an invented, untested one (see picture) and a bar with no seal at all. The results are astounding.

Main results: Trust in unverified seals

 The study shows that even unverified seals of approval increase consumers’ willingness to buy. What is even more surprising is that these unverified seals were rated as more credible than unknown verified seals. This underlines the fact that many consumers have difficulty distinguishing between reliable and questionable seals. This blind trust in unverified labels is alarming and shows how urgently regulatory measures are needed.

The role of availability heuristics

 Why do consumers trust unverified seals? One answer lies in the so-called availability heuristic. This mental shortcut leads us to perceive easily accessible or frequently seen information as particularly credible. So, if an unverified seal often appears on products, we tend to trust it – regardless of whether it is actually verified or not.

Discussion: A complex purchase decision

 The results of the study suggest that consumers often do not have the motivation or ability to critically scrutinize the credibility of quality seals.

Especially when it comes to stressful grocery shopping, we often rely on simple decision-making rules. This is exacerbated by the abundance of products and information in the supermarket, which further increases the confusion.

Recommendations: Time to act

 In view of these findings, it is important that we as a society take action:

  1. Stricter legal regulations: The planned EU directive against greenwashing must be implemented as soon as possible to ensure that only certified seals may be used. This directive would help to prevent misleading environmental claims and ensure that only verified seals appear on products.
  2. Conscious consumption: Consumers should actively inform themselves about the meaning and origin of quality labels. Knowledge is power, especially when it comes to sustainable consumption. Better consumer education about the various labels could help to avoid misjudgments.
  3. Transparency on the part of companies: Companies should disclose which criteria their seals of approval fulfill and how these are checked in order to strengthen consumer trust. A clear and transparent process for awarding seals of approval could help to win back consumer trust.

Conclusion: More than just a seal

 This study opens our eyes to the fact that not every seal of approval delivers what it promises at first glance. While we want to be environmentally conscious, we also need to be more critical and not blindly trust every label. The results underline the urgency of better regulation and education so that we can make more informed and sustainable purchasing decisions in the future.

The next chocolate bar you buy could tell more than just a story about taste – it could also be a story about trust and deception. Don’t trust every seal on your chocolate!

References

 

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Trust in Food Labels – Can digital and transparent animal movement data increase trust in beef and dairy products?

From horse meat in lasagna to falsely declared ingredients, the food industry is increasingly losing consumer trust (Sander, Heim & Kohnle, 2016). In Germany alone, there were at least 68 food scandals in 2023 (PETA Deutschland e.V., 2023). Food labels serve as quality indicators (Splendid Research, 2023), but it is becoming increasingly difficult for consumers to understand the quality characteristics behind them (Weiß, 2008). Therefore, it’s crucial to establish trust in labels as it significantly influences which products make their way into shopping baskets (Esch, Rühl & Baumgartl, 2016). Considering the food scandals and the plummeting trust in the food industry, the question arises of how trust among consumers can be restored and enhanced in both business-to-business and business-to-customer sectors.

The start-up Million Steps (https://www.millionsteps.earth/ger) also deals with the question of whether its new concept can have a trust-building effect on beef and dairy products. Million Steps addresses this issue by implementing an innovative and transparent tracking system for animal husbandry. The company precisely monitors and documents the movements of each animal to provide clear and traceable data along the entire supply chain. In this way, the start-up provides comprehensive insight into animal husbandry. The collected data is linked to the official ear tag of each animal and can be accessed by professionals in the food industry, restaurant visitors, and customers via QR codes. Among other things, this can prove that each animal has spent at least 12 months (the time it takes a cow to take a million steps) grazing on pasture and enjoying freedom of movement. Additionally, the origin of the animals is transparently verified by making background information about the animal and the farmer accessible.

Research goal

The study, conducted by Vanessa Fleig, a student of business psychology, examines the effect of digital and transparent animal movement data from the Million Steps label on the trustworthiness of beef and dairy products.

Research overview

Qualitative individual interviews were conducted with two groups to investigate the research question. The first group consists of restaurateurs who work in various areas such as restaurants, company restaurants and catering. The second group comprises gastronomy customers of different genders and ages in order to ensure the most heterogeneous group possible. A total of five interviews were conducted per group. The interviews are based on the laddering method in order to identify further motives that can influence trustworthiness. In addition, exemplary images were shown to illustrate the label in more detail.

Main findings

  • For a label to be generally perceived as trustworthy, the following aspects are most important: positive reputation, high level of awareness, simple traceability, comprehensible presentation of information.
  • The combination of small farms with the possibility of individual visits through personal contact with the farmers, as well as regular inspections and certifications on the integrity of the label also have a trust-enhancing effect.
  • Animal movement data is largely perceived as added value by both target groups due to the continuous but especially animal-specific monitoring of farmers, which represents a new and innovative approach.
  • Animal-specific data as well as the permanent monitoring of animals counteract the motive “lack of trust in the food industry” and increase consumer trust.
  • The transparent and open presentation of information (movement data, regionality, ) also leads to increased traceability, which can also increase trust.
  • An argument against an additional trust-increasing effect is that husbandry can also be checked without active tracking through personal contact with the In addition to pasture husbandry, other factors such as antibiotic use are also relevant in order to achieve a long-term trust-increasing effect.
  • Animal movement data, especially in combination with information on place of origin and regionality, has the potential to increase trust in beef and dairy products in the long

Implications

  • The target groups differ in terms of trust-enhancing
  • While tangible evidence, such as the possibility of visiting the farm, has a

trust-enhancing effect on restaurateurs, more superficial factors, such as a clearly designed website, an appropriate amount of information or easy and transparent traceability, are sufficient for gastronomy customers.

  • Animal movement data has a confidence-increasing effect especially when labels are generally relevant to purchases.
  • If labels are not considered separately when making purchases, animal movement data may be trustworthy, but does not increase trust in beef and dairy products, as factors other than labels are perceived as value-enhancing.
  • Independent reputations increase trust, but are not yet available for Million Steps
  • As a future recommendation, the label could, for example, be registered on the online platform “Label-online”, which offers consumers an independent, uniformly evaluated overview of labels.
  • Furthermore, the selection of cooperating farmers is based on certain selection Farms should be small and regional, with the possibility of personal cooperation and adaptation to the individual wishes of the restaurants.

Conclusion

The study made it clear that digital and transparent animal movement data are predominantly perceived as added value and trustworthy. This assumption applies in particular to people who generally pay attention to labels, as animal movement data results in an additional increase in trust compared to other labels. The basis for this is the permanent control as well as the animal-specific proof. Transparent proof with simple and detailed traceability contributes to an increase in trust right from the start. However, a long-term trust-promoting effect only manifests itself through positive reputations and personal experience. Not only the animal movement data, but in particular the combination of transparent communication and regional production are perceived as trust-promoting attributes. In conclusion, it can be emphasized that Million Steps as a whole and not specifically the animal movement data have the potential for a long-term trust-enhancing effect in beef and dairy products.

References

Esch, F.‑R., Rühl, V. & Baumgartl, C. (2016). Messung des Markenvertrauens. In F.-R. Esch (Hrsg.), Handbuch Markenführung (S. 1–16). Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-13361-0_66-1

PETA Deutschland e.V. (Harald Ullmann, Hrsg.). (2023). Die schlimmsten Lebensmittelskandale in Deutschland. Verfügbar unter: https://www.peta.de/themen/skandalchronik/

Sander, M., Heim, N. & Kohnle, Y. (2016). Label-Awareness: Wie genau schaut der Konsument hin? – Eine Analyse des Label-Bewusstseins von Verbrauchern unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Lebensmittelbereichs. Berichte über Landwirtschaft – Zeitschrift für Agrarpolitik und Landwirtschaft, Band 94, Heft 2, August 2016. https://doi.org/10.12767/BUEL.V94I2.120

Splendid Research. (2023). Studie: Gütesiegel Monitor 2023. Verfügbar unter: https://www.splendid-research.com/de/studie/guetesiegel-monitor2023/

Weiß, C. (2008). Zeichenvielfalt auf Lebensmitteln: ein Wegweiser. Ernährungs Umschau, (55), 83–93.

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Acceptance of smart stores – An experimental case study

New technologies are changing people’s everyday lives and have also been increasingly used in food retailing for a few years now. Innovative store concepts are designed to align the shopping experience even better with the needs and requirements of consumers. So-called smart stores are a mixture of stationary retail and innovative technology. They represent a further development opportunity for the retail sector, enabling it to maintain its own position in the future alongside the rapidly growing online trade. So far, there are still few smart stores open for the public, as these further development investments are associated with some challenges for the operators. The technological development of such a store implies the change of the business model, high initial investments and an uncertainty about the acceptance of the consumers. This last aspect is where our research comes in. With the help of acceptance research on smart stores, first concepts can be evaluated and optimized and thus the potential of these innovative ideas can be fully exploited.

Research Aim

In the study presented here, the acceptance and perception of smart stores in general and of a specific store concept from Stuttgart were investigated. The study was conducted by Valentin Löffler, a student of our business psychology program, as part of his final thesis.

Method

The study design consisted of two parts. In the first part of the study, a short survey (approx. 5 minutes) was conducted in front of the smart store with randomly selected people who walked past the store as passers-by. This was to capture the expectations, and attitudes of the passersby towards the store concept. In the second part of the study, qualitative interviews (approx. 45 minutes) were conducted with people who had not yet visited a smart store. In these interviews, participants made a purchase at the smart store, answering questions about acceptance both before and after the shopping experience. While shopping, they were asked to speak their thoughts aloud (thinking aloud method).

Sample

In the first part of the study, a total of 71 people aged 20 to 69 participated.
In the second part of the study, a total of 10 people aged 23 to 43 were interviewed.

Selected Key Findings

    1. Sub-study:
    • Smart stores are generally rated positive
      (1.9 on a scale of 1 = very good to 6 = very poor)
    • 63% of respondents had already made at least one purchase at this smart store and 93% of them would also recommend this store to others.
    • Reasons for recommendation: “cool concept”, “continuous opening hours”, “practical” as well as “good supplement to the supermarket”.
    • The expectations of a smart store are a good selection, fresh fruits and vegetables, reliable technology, nice design, low prices and cleanliness.
    • Concerns about a smart store arise from the lack of personal contact between customers and employees.
    1. Sub-study:
    • After the initial shopping experience, respondents consistently had a positive perception of the smart store. They see it as a complement to conventional supermarkets. The intuitive operation was a particularly positive surprise.
    • Advantages: Opening hours, time savings and flexibility.
    • Disadvantages or uncertainty with regard to the reliability of the technical implementation, lack of social contact and the loss of jobs (compared to conventional supermarkets).

Conclusion:

Smart stores offer a novel and intuitive shopping experience that are already generating a high level of acceptance: The (first) shopping experiences are consistently described positively, but there were some concerns about how to get assistance in case of emergency when there are no employees on site. Another issue should be proactively considered in communication: possible loss of jobs. This study lays the foundation for further research in the area of smart stores and shows that these innovative concepts have a future.

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Robots on Campus: An Exciting Study on Acceptance and Functionality

Imagine walking onto the campus of Heilbronn University (in a city in southern Germany) and being greeted by a friendly robot called Temi. Temi will effortlessly navigate you around the campus, tell you what’s on the menu in the canteen and even help you find the right person to talk to. Sounds futuristic? Well, that’s exactly what this exciting research project was all about.

Robotic assistants or service robots are increasingly used in various fields to support humans in everyday tasks and interactions. This study investigated the acceptance of the robotic assistant “Temi” on the educational campus in Heilbronn. The aim was to contribute to the successful implementation of the robot Temi on the educational campus.

Fotos: Martin Albermann

 

Research Goal

The main of this research was to investigate the acceptance of robots like Temi on the educational campus in Heilbronn and to find out which functionalities and characteristics are relevant for their further development. By taking into account the opinions and attitudes of the campus users, we were able to gain valuable insights that are of great importance for the future design and implementation of robots in comparable settings.

Research Overview

To achieve this goal, Marie Bauer, a business psychology student at our university, conducted a comprehensive study using a combination of research methods in an exploratory design. The study was conducted as part of the Smart Campus Initiative and in cooperation with Fraunhofer IAO. First, a qualitative study was conducted with two focus groups to gain deeper insights into the opinions and experiences of potential users. For each focus group, eight participants were recruited. These were made up of staff, students and visitors to the Heilbronn campus, in order to approximate the heterogeneous picture of the general user community of the campus. Secondly, a quantitative study was conducted with 230 participants, also consisting of these three target groups.

Sample Overview

The sample included people who regularly visited the campus as well as those who had never been there. This ensured that a wide range of perspectives and opinions were taken into account. The diversity of participants allowed for comprehensive and meaningful results. The majority of respondents were women (73.5%) aged between 19 and 26 (M=26). The majority of respondents had never been to the Heilbronn campus (70.4%). The remaining respondents were students (14.4%), employees (4.8%) or visitors (10.4%) to the Heilbronn Campus.

Main Findings

Overall, the acceptance of Temi on the educational campus was assessed as positive, although potential for improvement was also identified.

    • Maximum Difference Scaling (MDS): The MDS analysis revealed that navigation & guidance, information, and verbal & visual directions had the highest relative importance ratings and are therefore the most important functionalities and features relevant to the further development of Temi on the educational campus. Features such as feedback, greeting & welcoming, individual personality of the robot and entertainment were considered less important. These are functions that aim at entertaining interaction and fun with the robot.
    • Surprisingly, there were nearly no differences in the importance of features between regular campus users (students, staff, visitors) and those who had never been on campus.
    • Other feature suggestions: The most common other suggestions for potential future features of Temi were making emergency calls, contacting first responders, a cleaning feature, and the ability to contact Temi through an app.
    • Acceptance scores and factors: The acceptance of Temi on the educational campus was assessed as positive overall.
    • Predictive quality of the model: The structural model achieved an R2 value of .73, which means that 73% of the variance in intention to use could be explained by the model. The path coefficients of the factors usefulness, enjoyment and personal attitude had a significant positive influence on intention to use.
    • Descriptive values: Intention to use was rated positively on average (M = 3.77). The factors ease of use and facilitating conditions received the highest mean scores, while the factors social influence and personality received lower mean scores. Personal attitude, usefulness and enjoyment were in the positive middle range.

Implications

The results suggest that the further development of robots on educational campuses should initially focus on useful features for navigation, guidance and information provision. Features that focus on Temi’s entertainment can be neglected for the time being, based on the results of this study.

To increase acceptance, entertaining functions and features in the areas of usefulness, fun and personal attitude of the users should be integrated into the interaction with the robot. Privacy and data protection measures should be implemented to increase user confidence and further increase acceptance.

Conclusion

This research provided valuable insights into the acceptance and relevant functionalities of robots such as Temi on educational campuses. The results show that robots can play a promising role in education by helping users navigate the campus and providing useful information.

This research opens up new perspectives for the integration of robots in educational settings and raises exciting questions: How can robots like Temi enhance learning and everyday life on campus? How can we ensure that they respond to individual user needs? The future of education may be robotic, and this study is a first step in that exciting direction.

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Virtual Reality (VR) in urban planning – a helpful use of technology to increase the acceptance of a reduction in car traffic

Climate change and the associated attempt to take appropriate measures in order to reduce global warming are omnipresent. One current issue in this context is car traffic, especially in large cities, which produces a lot of emissions and, thus, contributes to climate change. European cities want to reduce the dominance of motorized individual transport in order to combat the environmental problems associated with it, such as noise, air pollution and land consumption (SPIEGEL, 2022). The aim is to redesign public space to improve the quality of life, so that everyone ultimately benefits.

In this context, the acceptance of citizens is particularly important for the implementation of transport policy measures, as resistance may arise before or during projects (Bosch & Peyke, 2011; Huber et al., 2020; Pleger, 2019). Studies show that citizens are more open to transport policy measures if they create quality of life and quality of place (Andor et al., 2020; Wicki et al., 2021; Wicki & Kaufmann, 2022). It is problematic that in the early planning phases, the opportunities for influence are greatest, but the interest of citizens is lowest (Wolf et al., 2020). One reason for the low level of interest is the provision of comprehensible information, which is often characterized by complex plan drawings, image montages, graphics or texts in technical language that are difficult or impossible for non-experts to understand (Spieker, 2021; Wolf et al., 2020).

This is where new technologies come into play, such as virtual reality glasses, which can visualize measures and changes in the cityscape and make them tangible. Several studies have demonstrated the potential of simple immersion in various new reality scenarios without prior knowledge or experience (Lovett et al., 2015; Schauppenlehner et al., 2018; Schwarze et al., 2022; Sinning et al., 2023). Through these so-called immersive visualization technologies, every citizen can also be made privy to a project and their opinion can be sought, thus increasing the acceptance of the measures and changes.

Research Goal

The aim of a study conducted by Jasmina Rückle, a Master student in our Business Psychology Programme, was to analyze the impact of the use of immersive visualization technologies on the acceptance of a reduction in moving and stationary car traffic among residents and people in a suburban area. Empirically, there is a gap on the question of whether immersive visualization technologies (e.g. VR glasses) have a stronger positive influence on the acceptance of car traffic reduction than less immersive visualization technologies (e.g. a video on a smartphone). There is also a lack of information on the factors that influence immersion, which were investigated in more detail in this study.

Study Overview

The experimental study was conducted in an urban environment in Stuttgart with a representative group of 60 participants, consisting of local residents and people with a personal connection to the surrounding area. During the experiment, the participants were presented with different scenarios related to traffic reduction. Firstly, what the urban environment currently looks like, and secondly, what it could look like in the future with less car traffic. The experiment was conducted under three different conditions: a) interactive virtual reality, b) visualization of a VR video and c) presentation of a video on a smartphone. Acceptance of the traffic reduction and other relevant variables were measured before and after the exposure of the virtual presentation.

The survey data was recorded on a 5-point Likert scale from not at all (1) to completely (5). The 60 respondents, with an average age of 34 years, were 48% male and 52% female. The two largest groups of people were professionals (55%) and students (32%), all of whom had regular contact with the selected urban environment.

Main Findings

Acceptance of car traffic reduction:
The residents and people with a direct connection to the selected urban environment had a high acceptance of the reduction of moving and stationary car traffic. They particularly disliked the noise caused by the traffic.

Immersive visualization technologies:
After the manipulation with the VR interaction, the acceptance of reducing car traffic differed significantly between the scenarios of how the neighbourhood looks now and how it could look in the future. For example, acceptance increased with the help of immersive technology in the interactive VR scenario. This was not the case for the other two conditions (VR video and smartphone video).

In our study, the level of immersion (how much the respondent can immerse themselves in the scenario) had a strong positive influence on acceptance. Immersion can be further enhanced by increasing the user’s attention and cognitive involvement, which can be promoted by, for example, a high-resolution animated scenario and a situation in which the person does not feel observed. People with a strong spatial imagination also experience better immersion. On the other hand, technology affinity had no effect on perceived immersion.

Conclusion

From the study it can be concluded that it may be a useful method in future urban planning to use technologies such as high immersion VR glasses to allow citizens to immerse themselves in the scenario and thus increase the acceptance for changes. This can be used for future scenarios that are otherwise not directly tangible to citizens, which can be animated in a way that is close to reality. As we have demonstrated, interaction in virtual reality can increase the acceptance of reducing car traffic in cities, which would facilitate the implementation of climate-friendly measures. A VR or smartphone video does not increase this acceptance. A high degree of immersion is important. This can be further increased by high attention, cognitive involvement and strong spatial imagination of the person using the immersive technology.

References

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Bosch, S., & Peyke, G. (2011). Gegenwind für die Erneuerbaren – Räumliche Neuorientierung der Wind-, Solar- und Bioenergie vor dem Hintergrund einer verringerten Akzeptanz sowie zunehmender Flächennutzungskonflikte im ländlichen Raum. Raumforschung und Raumordnung | Spatial Research and Planning, 69(2), 105–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13147-011-0082-6

Huber, R. A., Wicki, M. L., & Bernauer, T. (2020). Public support for environmental policy depends on beliefs concerning effectiveness, intrusiveness, and fairness. Environmental Politics, 29(4), 649–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2019.1629171

Lovett, A., Appleton, K., Warren-Kretzschmar, B., & Von Haaren, C. (2015). Using 3D visualization methods in landscape planning: An evaluation of options and practical issues. Landscape and Urban Planning, 142, 85–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.02.021 

Pleger, L. E. (2019). Democratic Acceptance of Spatial Planning Policy Measures. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3- 319-90878-6

Schauppenlehner, T., Kugler, K., & Muhar, A. (2018). Anwendungserfahrungen von Virtual Reality als Kommunikationswerkzeug in partizipativen Planungsprozessen. Wichmann Verlag. https://doi.org/10.14627/537647003

Schwarze, J., Vöckler, K., Hinde, S., David, E., Le-Hoa Võ, M., & Eckart, P. (2022). Virtual Reality im Mobilitätsdesign: Experimentelle Forschung zum Einsatz von VR-Simulationen. In P. Eckart, M. Knöll, M. Lanzendorf, & K. Vöckler (Hrsg.), Mobility Design (S. 198–215). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783868597936-019 

Sinning, H., Brandenburger, Y., Kruse, R., & Rogoll, S. (2023). Partizipative Stadtentwicklung mit XR-Technologie. Urbane Transformation als gesamtgesellschaftliche Aufgabe. https://www.vhw.de/fileadmin/user_upload/08_publikationen/verbandszeitschrift/FWS/2023/FWS_2_2023/FWS_2_23_Gesamtausgabe.pdf

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Spieker, A. (2021). Chance statt Show – Bürgerbeteiligung mit Virtual Reality & Co.: Akzeptanz und Wirkung der Visualisierung von Bauvorhaben. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658- 33082-8

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Will air taxis extend public transportation?

Cities and their surrounding areas have to face rising mobility and infrastructural challenges due to the increasing urbanization. Correspondingly, a new category for aerial vehicles and shared mobility concepts called urban air mobility (UAM) has emerged, offering a new dimension: the skyscape. Electrical Vertical Takeoff and Landing (eVTOL) aircraft, also known as air taxis, are considered the vehicle foundation of UAM. Air taxis provide a local, emission-free and infrastructure-conserving mode of transportation. For successful integration into the public transportation network, the intention to use and the willingness to accept air taxis must be present among potential users. Another important indicator for future infrastructure planning is the willingness to pay. Therefore, Hartmut Fricke, Robert Brühl, Laura Riza and Patrick Planing conducted a study that aims to investigate the willingness to use and pay for air taxis in various urban scenarios. This study was developed through an interdisciplinary research background and offers a first approximation for regular trips for each scenario.

Research Overview

The study, conducted in the greater Dresden area in Germany, integrates diverse research perspectives across different urban transport scenarios: societal acceptance, intention to use and willingness to pay. The data collection took place in the greater metropolitan area of the city, with a final sample of 1,074 participants. QR codes leading to a quantitative online survey were distributed to passersby at various locations within the city and on the outskirts to ensure that participants from different city areas were queried.
To ensure applicability in practical contexts, three scenarios meticulously drawn from real-life contexts were selected. One central factor that remained constant among the scenarios was that the air taxi covers the distance about 30 % faster than a car, conventional taxi, or bus and that there is less risk of delay due to external influences, such as congestion. Scenario 1 explored the utilization of air taxis as an individual transportation choice for a special occasion. Specifically, the application for a trip to an opera performance (“limousine case”). This scenario was chosen since the Dresden opera is among the most well-known operas in Europa and the most popular tourist location in the area. Scenario 2 examined an individual route from the respondent’s home to the Postplatz, a public square in the city center of Dresden (“taxi case”). Since the respondents reported their postal code, approximate distances to the location could be calculated for each scenario. In Scenario 3, the use of an air taxi as part of a fixed-schedule network was presented for a mid-distance flight in the larger city area (“bus case”).

Main findings of survey

  • Results indicated a restrained societal acceptance for air taxis among this sample in the greater Dresden metropolitan area.
    → Approximately half of the respondents indicated they do not want air taxis in Dresden in the future
  • Results indicated a restrained intention to use air taxis among this sample, with most respondents stating that it is unlikely they will use air taxis in the future.
  • Participants who would like to see air taxis in Dresden in the future would also be more likely to use them.
  • The intention to use air taxis in the future was highest in the limousine scenario and a similar intention emerged for the bus scenario. In the taxi scenario, the intention to use was lower.
  • The analysis revealed a significant difference in the intention to use air taxis between the limousine case and the taxi case, as well as between the taxi case and the bus case. No significant difference was found between the limousine and the bus scenarios. 
  • The PSM-light method was used to determine price willingness. For the limousine case, the computed willingness to pay is €30 per flight. In the second scenario, the taxi case, participants’ willingness to pay is €15, and for the bus case, it is €18. 

Conclusion

Overall, the data suggest that air taxis have not gained widespread acceptance yet, as approximately half of the respondents are not open to the idea of using them. The limited experience with air taxis, as they are not part of the transportation system, might contribute to the restricted acceptance of participants. Furthermore, the study reveals that people are more inclined to welcome the integration of air taxis into their cities if they perceive it as a technology they would use personally in the future. The scenario analysis revealed a greater inclination among respondents to use air taxis for special occasions compared to everyday commuting scenarios, indicating that people are more likely to consider air taxis for unique events rather than as a primary daily mode of transportation. Accordingly, consumers showed the highest willingness to pay in the limousine scenario. Based on this research, governmental authorities and industry stakeholders may consider the findings to develop a human-centered approach for future mobility and ensure successful implementation in the mobility networks of the future.
The complete study is available for open access in the Transportation Research Journal.

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VR in applied research [part 2]: When our imagination doesn’t reach far enough – Virtual reality as a participatory method to increase the acceptance of sustainable mobility

It is expected of cities to provide an attractive, but also competitive place to work and live, while managing the needs of all transportation users and meeting the increasing demands of climate, environmental and health protection all at the same time. Not meeting these demands often simultaneously relates to a reduction in the inhabitants’ quality of life. An important component for a high standard of living in cities is mobility, which is one aspect of our institution’s research project, iCity, aimed at developing the intelligent city of the future (read more here about this project).

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VR in applied research [part 1]: An empirical investigation of using virtual reality for researching the acceptance of smart stores

Imagine you are at the grocery store, but instead of waiting at the cashier to pay, an artificial intelligence (AI) registered the products you took and automatically bills them to your account right after you leave the store. For many years, the shopping process in a supermarket was very similar: customers would take products from shelves, then go to checkout, put the goods on a belt which were scanned by a cashier, and pay. Usually, this process is often associated with waiting times, depending on how busy the store is. With the introduction of self-checkouts, this process has already been optimized through technology. In 2016, Amazon opened the first smart store in Seattle. A smart store completely eliminates the payment process at a cash register (Amazon, 2022). Cameras, sensors and an AI automatically detect which products the customer took from the shelf. The products are paid for using the stored payment data when the customer leaves the store. This smart store concept rather describes the “Grab & Go” technology which includes a walk-in option for customers. While there are a multitude of different concepts used in smart stores, this research focused on said concept as well as an ”Automated Box” concept which refers to a smart store with a fully automated high-bay warehouse. Customers do not select the products inside this particular smart store, but choose their desired products via an app either before or upon their arrival.

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